What are the main assumptions of linear regression?

There are several assumptions of linear regression. If any of them is violated, model predictions and interpretation may be worthless or misleading.

1) Linear relationship between features and target variable.

2) Additivity means that the effect of changes in one of the features on the target variable does not depend on values of other features. For example, a model for predicting revenue of a company have of two features - the number of items a sold and the number of items b sold. When company sells more items a the revenue increases and this is independent of the number of items b sold. But, if customers who buy a stop buying b, the additivity assumption is violated.

3) Features are not correlated (no collinearity) since it can be difficult to separate out the individual effects of collinear features on the target variable.

4) Errors are independently and identically normally distributed (yi = B0 + B1*x1i + ... + errori):

i) No correlation between errors (consecutive errors in the case of time series data).

ii) Constant variance of errors - homoscedasticity. For example, in case of time series, seasonal patterns can increase errors in seasons with higher activity.

iii) Errors are normaly distributed, otherwise some features will have more influence on the target variable than to others. If the error distribution is significantly non-normal, confidence intervals may be too wide or too narrow.

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Machine Learning – Essential Concepts 🚀

1️⃣ Types of Machine Learning

Supervised Learning – Uses labeled data to train models.

Examples: Linear Regression, Decision Trees, Random Forest, SVM


Unsupervised Learning – Identifies patterns in unlabeled data.

Examples: Clustering (K-Means, DBSCAN), PCA


Reinforcement Learning – Models learn through rewards and penalties.

Examples: Q-Learning, Deep Q Networks



2️⃣ Key Algorithms

Regression – Predicts continuous values (Linear Regression, Ridge, Lasso).

Classification – Categorizes data into classes (Logistic Regression, Decision Tree, SVM, Naïve Bayes).

Clustering – Groups similar data points (K-Means, Hierarchical Clustering, DBSCAN).

Dimensionality Reduction – Reduces the number of features (PCA, t-SNE, LDA).


3️⃣ Model Training & Evaluation

Train-Test Split – Dividing data into training and testing sets.

Cross-Validation – Splitting data multiple times for better accuracy.

Metrics – Evaluating models with RMSE, Accuracy, Precision, Recall, F1-Score, ROC-AUC.


4️⃣ Feature Engineering

Handling missing data (mean imputation, dropna()).

Encoding categorical variables (One-Hot Encoding, Label Encoding).

Feature Scaling (Normalization, Standardization).


5️⃣ Overfitting & Underfitting

Overfitting – Model learns noise, performs well on training but poorly on test data.

Underfitting – Model is too simple and fails to capture patterns.

Solution: Regularization (L1, L2), Hyperparameter Tuning.


6️⃣ Ensemble Learning

Combining multiple models to improve performance.

Bagging (Random Forest)

Boosting (XGBoost, Gradient Boosting, AdaBoost)



7️⃣ Deep Learning Basics

Neural Networks (ANN, CNN, RNN).

Activation Functions (ReLU, Sigmoid, Tanh).

Backpropagation & Gradient Descent.


8️⃣ Model Deployment

Deploy models using Flask, FastAPI, or Streamlit.

Model versioning with MLflow.

Cloud deployment (AWS SageMaker, Google Vertex AI).

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Jupyter Notebooks are essential for data analysts working with Python.

Here’s how to make the most of this great tool:

1. 𝗢𝗿𝗴𝗮𝗻𝗶𝘇𝗲 𝗬𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗖𝗼𝗱𝗲 𝘄𝗶𝘁𝗵 𝗖𝗹𝗲𝗮𝗿 𝗦𝘁𝗿𝘂𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲:

Break your notebook into logical sections using markdown headers. This helps you and your colleagues navigate the notebook easily and understand the flow of analysis. You could use headings (#, ##, ###) and bullet points to create a table of contents.


2. 𝗗𝗼𝗰𝘂𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗬𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗣𝗿𝗼𝗰𝗲𝘀𝘀:

Add markdown cells to explain your methodology, code, and guidelines for the user. This Enhances the readability and makes your notebook a great reference for future projects. You might want to include links to relevant resources and detailed docs where necessary.


3. 𝗨𝘀𝗲 𝗜𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗲 𝗪𝗶𝗱𝗴𝗲𝘁𝘀:

Leverage ipywidgets to create interactive elements like sliders, dropdowns, and buttons. With those, you can make your analysis more dynamic and allow users to explore different scenarios without changing the code. Create widgets for parameter tuning and real-time data visualization.


𝟰. 𝗞𝗲𝗲𝗽 𝗜𝘁 𝗖𝗹𝗲𝗮𝗻 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗠𝗼𝗱𝘂𝗹𝗮𝗿:

Write reusable functions and classes instead of long, monolithic code blocks. This will improve the code maintainability and efficiency of your notebook. You should store frequently used functions in separate Python scripts and import them when needed.


5. 𝗩𝗶𝘀𝘂𝗮𝗹𝗶𝘇𝗲 𝗬𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗗𝗮𝘁𝗮 𝗘𝗳𝗳𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗲𝗹𝘆:

Utilize libraries like Matplotlib, Seaborn, and Plotly for your data visualizations. These clear and insightful visuals will help you to communicate your findings. Make sure to customize your plots with labels, titles, and legends to make them more informative.


6. 𝗩𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝘁𝗿𝗼𝗹 𝗬𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗡𝗼𝘁𝗲𝗯𝗼𝗼𝗸𝘀:

Jupyter Notebooks are great for exploration, but they often lack systematic version control. Use tools like Git and nbdime to track changes, collaborate effectively, and ensure that your work is reproducible.

7. 𝗣𝗿𝗼𝘁𝗲𝗰𝘁 𝗬𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗡𝗼𝘁𝗲𝗯𝗼𝗼𝗸𝘀:

Clean and secure your notebooks by removing sensitive information before sharing. This helps to prevent the leakage of private data. You should consider using environment variables for credentials.


Keeping these techniques in mind will help to transform your Jupyter Notebooks into great tools for analysis and communication.

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1. Sentiment Analysis Tool: Develop a tool that uses AI to analyze the sentiment of text data, such as social media posts, customer reviews, or news articles. The tool could classify the sentiment as positive, negative, or neutral.

2. Image Recognition App: Create an app that uses AI image recognition algorithms to identify objects, scenes, or people in images. This could be useful for applications like automatic photo tagging or security surveillance.

3. Chatbot Development: Build a chatbot using AI natural language processing techniques to interact with users and provide information or assistance on a specific topic. You could integrate the chatbot into a website or messaging platform.

4. Recommendation System: Develop a recommendation system that uses AI algorithms to suggest products, movies, music, or other items based on user preferences and behavior. This could enhance the user experience on e-commerce platforms or streaming services.

5. Fraud Detection System: Create a fraud detection system that uses AI to analyze patterns and anomalies in financial transactions data. The system could help identify potentially fraudulent activities and prevent financial losses.

6. Health Monitoring App: Build an app that uses AI to monitor health data, such as heart rate, sleep patterns, or activity levels, and provide personalized recommendations for improving health and wellness.

7. Language Translation Tool: Develop a language translation tool that uses AI machine translation algorithms to translate text between different languages accurately and efficiently.

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Quick SQL functions cheat sheet for beginners

Aggregate Functions

COUNT(*): Counts rows.

SUM(column): Total sum.

AVG(column): Average value.

MAX(column): Maximum value.

MIN(column): Minimum value.


String Functions

CONCAT(a, b, …): Concatenates strings.

SUBSTRING(s, start, length): Extracts part of a string.

UPPER(s) / LOWER(s): Converts string case.

TRIM(s): Removes leading/trailing spaces.


Date & Time Functions

CURRENT_DATE / CURRENT_TIME / CURRENT_TIMESTAMP: Current date/time.

EXTRACT(unit FROM date): Retrieves a date part (e.g., year, month).

DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL n unit): Adds an interval to a date.


Numeric Functions

ROUND(num, decimals): Rounds to a specified decimal.

CEIL(num) / FLOOR(num): Rounds up/down.

ABS(num): Absolute value.

MOD(a, b): Returns the remainder.


Control Flow Functions

CASE: Conditional logic.

COALESCE(val1, val2, …): Returns the first non-null value.


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Top 5 Important Languages for Data Science 🧑‍💻📊

1. Python - 50% 🐍
2. R - 20% 📉
3. SQL - 15% 🗄️
4. Java - 7% ☕
5. Julia - 5% 🚀
6. Matlab - 3% 🧮

Roadmap To Learn Machine Learning ✨